Heresies

In both Catholic and Orthodox Christianity, heresy is understood as a belief or teaching that contradicts core doctrines established by the early ecumenical councils and the teachings of the Church. Heresies are considered grave errors that deviate from the truth of faith and undermine the unity and orthodoxy of the Christian community.

Catholic Understanding of Heresy

In Catholicism, heresy is defined as the obstinate post-baptismal denial of a truth that must be believed with divine and Catholic faith. The Catholic Church holds that a heresy must involve a willful, conscious rejection of an essential doctrine, as outlined in the Catechism and the decrees of early councils (e.g., the Nicene Creed). Canon law specifies that those guilty of heresy are formally excommunicated until they reconcile with the Church. Historical heresies such as Arianism and Pelagianism prompted Church councils to establish doctrines, which became part of official teaching to preserve orthodoxy.

Orthodox Understanding of Heresy

The Orthodox Church views heresy similarly, as a deviation from the established truths of the faith as preserved by apostolic tradition, the Scriptures, and the ecumenical councils. Heresy, in Orthodoxy, is seen as a danger to theosis (union with God), as it disrupts the pathway to communion with God. Like Catholicism, Orthodoxy identifies heresy through the teachings of Church Fathers and conciliar decisions, including the belief in the Trinity and the nature of Christ. Early ecumenical councils, such as Nicaea (325 AD) and Chalcedon (451 AD), were instrumental in defining doctrines and labeling certain beliefs as heretical to maintain the purity of Orthodox faith.

In the 2nd century, several heresies emerged, reflecting the diversity of beliefs and interpretations within the nascent Christianity. Here are some of the most notable:

1. Gnosticism: A complex movement that emphasized knowledge (gnosis) as the means of salvation. Gnostics believed that the material world was created by a demiurge, an inferior god, and that only secret knowledge could help one return to the true God. This heresy called into question divine creation and the goodness of God.

Fathers Against Gnosticism

a.      Saint Irenaeus of Lyons (c. 130 - 202) - A prominent figure in combating Gnostic teachings, especially in his work Against Heresies.

b.     Tertullian (c. 155 - after 220) - Wrote extensively against Gnosticism, particularly in his work Against Marcion and Against the Heretics.

c.      Hippolytus of Rome (c. 170 - 235) - Opposed Gnostic teachings and wrote Refutation of All Heresies.

d.     Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 - 215) - Engaged with Gnostic ideas, critiquing them in his works.

e.      Origen (c. 185 - 254) - Addressed Gnostic ideas and sought to clarify Christian doctrine in relation to them.

2. Marcionism: Founded by Marcion of Sinope, this movement taught that the God of the Old Testament was a just and vengeful god, different from the God of love revealed by Jesus Christ. Marcion proposed a canon of Scripture that excluded the Old Testament and included modified versions of the Gospels and letters of Paul.

Fathers Against Marcionism

a.      Tertullian (c. 155 - after 220) - His work Against Marcion was a thorough refutation of Marcionite beliefs.

b.     Saint Irenaeus of Lyons (c. 130 - 202) - Also opposed Marcion’s teachings, emphasizing the unity of God in his writings.

c.      Saint Justin Martyr (c. 100 - 165) - Engaged with Marcionism in his defenses of Christian theology.

d.     Saint Ambrose of Milan (c. 340 - 397) - Spoke against Marcionism in his writings, emphasizing the goodness of creation.

3. Montanism: A charismatic movement initiated by Montanus, who claimed to receive direct revelations from the Holy Spirit. Montanists emphasized strict morality and anticipated an imminent second coming of Christ. This movement sparked controversies over the role of the Holy Spirit and prophecy in the Church.

Fathers Against Montanism

a.      Tertullian (c. 155 - after 220) - Initially associated with Montanism but later critiqued it, showing the diverse perspectives within the early Church.

b.     Saint Hippolytus of Rome (c. 170 - 235) - Opposed Montanism, emphasizing the importance of apostolic tradition.

c.      Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 260 - 340) - Wrote about the rise of Montanism and its criticisms in his historical works.

d.     Saint Epiphanius of Salamis (c. 310 - 403) - Denounced Montanism in his Panarion.

4. Docetism: This doctrine asserted that Jesus Christ was not truly human and that his suffering and crucifixion were apparent but not real. According to the Docetists, Jesus’ body was an illusion, contradicting traditional Christian teaching on the incarnation.

Fathers Against Docetism

a.      Saint Ignatius of Antioch (c. 35 - 107) - Strongly opposed Docetic views, affirming the reality of Christ’s humanity.

b.     Saint Irenaeus of Lyons (c. 130 - 202) - Defended the reality of Christ’s incarnation against Docetism.

c.      Tertullian (c. 155 - after 220) - Critiqued Docetic ideas, emphasizing the physical suffering of Christ.

d.     Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 - 215) - Addressed the Docetic understanding of Christ in his writings.

5. Heresies Related to Christology: Several groups had divergent views on the nature of Christ, his divinity, and humanity. For example, some sought to understand how Christ could be both fully divine and fully human.

Fathers Against Heresies Related to Christology

a.      Saint Athanasius of Alexandria (c. 296 - 373) - Fought against Arianism and other Christological heresies, emphasizing the full divinity and humanity of Christ.

b.     Saint Cyril of Alexandria (c. 376 - 444) - Key figure in opposing Nestorianism and affirming the hypostatic union at the Council of Ephesus.

c.      Saint Gregory of Nazianzus (c. 329 - 390) - Defended the orthodox understanding of the Trinity and Christ’s dual nature.

d.     Saint Leo the Great (c. 400 - 461) - Known for the Tome of Leo, which affirmed the doctrine of the hypostatic union against heretical views.

e.      John of Damascus (c. 675 - 749) - Defended the doctrine of the union of Christ’s two natures against various heretical interpretations.

These heresies provoked intense theological debates and led to the definition of orthodox doctrine by Church Fathers such as Saint Irenaeus of Lyons, who vigorously fought against these ideas in his writings, particularly in his work Against Heresies. These Church Fathers played crucial roles in defining orthodox Christian beliefs and addressing the various heresies that emerged in the early centuries of the Church.

Arianism and Nestorianism are two heresies that emerged at different times in the history of Christianity:

Arianism

Arianism, a 4th-century Christian heresy initiated by Arius, a priest from Alexandria, questioned the divinity of Christ. Arius taught that Jesus, while exalted and created by God, was not equal to God the Father, essentially denying Christ’s co-eternity and co-equality with God. This belief conflicted with the doctrine of the Trinity, which holds that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are of one essence. Arianism was condemned at the First Council of Nicaea in 325 AD, which established the Nicene Creed affirming the full divinity of Christ, yet Arianism continued to influence theological debates for centuries​

• Century: Arianism appeared in the 4th century.

• Context: It was founded by Arius, a priest from Alexandria, who taught that the Son (Jesus Christ) was not coeternal with the Father and that he had been created by the Father. This doctrine sparked significant controversies and led to the convening of the Council of Nicaea in 325, where the Nicene Creed was established to affirm the divinity of Christ.

Fathers Against Arianism

1. Saint Athanasius of Alexandria (c. 296 - 373) - A leading figure in the fight against Arianism, known for his strong defense of the Nicene Creed.

2. Saint Nicholas of Myra (c. 270 - 343) - Often depicted as a defender of the faith against Arianism; he is also the historical figure behind Santa Claus.

3. Saint Ambrose of Milan (c. 340 - 397) - A key opponent of Arianism in the West, influential in shaping Christian doctrine.

4. Saint Augustine of Hippo (354 - 430) - While not primarily focused on Arianism, he wrote extensively against various heresies, including Arianism.

5. Saint Basil the Great (c. 330 - 379) - One of the Cappadocian Fathers who worked to uphold Nicene orthodoxy.

6. Saint Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335 - 395) - Another Cappadocian Father who opposed Arian teachings.

7. Saint Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 313 - 386) - Defended the Nicene Creed and opposed Arianism in his catechetical lectures.

8. Saint John Chrysostom (c. 349 - 407) - Known for his eloquent preaching and opposition to Arianism.

9. Eusibius of Vercelli (c. 283 - 371) - A staunch opponent of Arianism who suffered persecution for his beliefs.

Nestorianism

Nestorianism, attributed to Nestorius, the Patriarch of Constantinople in the early 5th century, argued for a distinct separation between Christ’s divine and human natures. This teaching posited that Jesus had two separate persons, one divine and one human, instead of a unified identity. The controversy intensified around Nestorius’s rejection of the term Theotokos (Mother of God) for Mary, which he saw as incompatible with Christ’s humanity. The Council of Ephesus in 431 AD condemned Nestorianism and affirmed that Christ is one person with two natures—fully divine and fully human​

• Century: Nestorianism emerged in the 5th century.

• Context: It is associated with Nestorius, the Patriarch of Constantinople, who taught that Christ had two distinct natures (divine and human) and that these natures were united in a single person but without being mixed. This doctrine was condemned at the Council of Ephesus in 431, which affirmed that Christ is one person, fully divine and fully human.

Fathers Against Nestorianism

1. Saint Cyril of Alexandria (c. 376 - 444) - A major opponent of Nestorius and a key figure in the Council of Ephesus (431), where Nestorianism was condemned.

2. Pope Leo I (Saint Leo the Great) (c. 400 - 461) - Condemned Nestorianism in his writings and affirmed the doctrine of the hypostatic union.

3. Saint Ephrem the Syrian (c. 306 - 373) - Criticized Nestorianism in his hymns and theological writings.

4. Saint Augustine of Hippo (354 - 430) - His writings indirectly countered Nestorian ideas, emphasizing the unity of Christ.

5. Saint John Damascene (c. 675 - 749) - Defended the doctrine of the hypostatic union and wrote against Nestorianism.

6. Saint Peter Chrysologus (c. 400 - 450) - Opposed Nestorian teachings and emphasized the unity of Christ.

7. Saint Proclus of Constantinople (c. 390 - 446) - A defender of the faith against Nestorianism, known for his eloquent sermons.

8. Saint Leo of Byzantium (c. 450 - 518) - Also spoke against Nestorianism and upheld the Council of Ephesus’ decisions.

These two heresies had a significant impact on the development of Christian theology and led to doctrinal debates that shaped the understanding of the nature of Christ in the Church. These Fathers played significant roles in shaping early Christian doctrine and addressing heretical teachings in their respective eras.

These heresies represent significant challenges to the development of orthodox Christian doctrine and have shaped the Church’s understanding of faith and salvation.

Here’s a list of notable heresies recognized within the Catholic Church throughout history:

1. Arianism - Originating in the 4th century, this heresy, proposed by Arius, claimed that Jesus was a created being and not co-eternal with God the Father. It was condemned at the First Council of Nicaea in 325 AD.

2. Pelagianism - Founded by Pelagius in the 5th century, it taught that humans could achieve salvation through their own efforts without divine grace. This was condemned at the Council of Carthage in 418 AD.

3. Nestorianism - This heresy arose in the 5th century and denied the title of Theotokos (Mother of God) for Mary, asserting that Christ was two distinct persons, one divine and one human. It was condemned at the Council of Ephesus in 431 AD.

4. Monophysitism - Emerging as a reaction to Nestorianism, it posited that Christ had only one nature, which was divine. This heresy was rejected by the Council of Chalcedon in 451 AD.

5. Docetism - This belief claimed that Jesus only appeared to be human and did not suffer in the flesh. It was an early heresy that challenged the reality of Christ’s incarnation.

6. Iconoclasm - Involving the rejection of religious images or icons, this controversy began in the Byzantine Empire in the 7th century, leading to significant theological and political disputes until the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 AD restored the veneration of icons.

7. Montanism - Founded in the late 2nd century, Montanism emphasized new revelations and prophecies, claiming that the Holy Spirit continued to provide new teachings beyond the established canon of Scripture.

8. Gnosticism - A broad term for various sects that believed in a secret knowledge (gnosis) for salvation, often pitting the material world against a higher spiritual realm.

9. Sabellianism - This heresy proposed that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are not distinct persons but different modes of God’s existence.

10. Free Spirit Movement - A heresy from the 14th and 15th centuries that suggested individuals who attained spiritual perfection were no longer bound by moral laws.

11. Donatism - A North African sect that emerged in the 4th century, it held that the validity of sacraments depended on the moral character of the minister administering them. This was condemned by Augustine and rejected by the Church at the Council of Carthage.

12. Lollardy - Rooted in the teachings of John Wycliffe in the 14th century, Lollards rejected the authority of the Pope and the doctrine of transubstantiation, advocating for a return to Scripture as the sole authority.

13. Waldensianism - Founded by Peter Waldo in the late 12th century, this movement emphasized voluntary poverty and criticized the wealth and corruption of the Church, leading to its condemnation.

14. Jansenism - This movement arose in the 17th century, emphasizing predestination and the total depravity of human nature, which led to its condemnation by the Church at various councils, including the Council of Port-Royal.

15. Modernism - A theological movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that sought to reconcile faith with modern scientific and philosophical thought, it was condemned by Pope Pius X in the early 20th century.

16. Universalism - The belief that all souls will ultimately be saved, which runs contrary to traditional Catholic teachings on salvation and damnation.

17. Relativism - This contemporary view asserts that truth is not absolute but relative to individuals or cultures, challenging the Church’s stance on moral and doctrinal absolutes.

18. New Age Movements - Various beliefs and practices that emerged in the late 20th century, often incorporating elements from Eastern religions, which can conflict with traditional Christian doctrines.

19. Theosophy - Founded in the late 19th century, this movement combines elements of Eastern religions and esotericism with Christian concepts, which the Church views as incompatible with orthodox teaching.

20. Panentheism - The belief that God encompasses the universe and transcends it, challenging traditional Christian notions of God’s transcendence and immanence.

These heresies have historically led to significant theological debates and the formulation of Church doctrine.

Both Catholic and Orthodox traditions condemn similar heresies from early Church history, such as:

• Arianism: The belief that Jesus is not fully divine, condemned by the First Council of Nicaea.

• Nestorianism: The doctrine that Christ has two separate persons (human and divine), condemned at the Council of Ephesus.

• Iconoclasm: A rejection of religious images, opposed by the Second Council of Nicaea.

The two traditions regard heresy as a significant departure from apostolic faith that threatens Christian unity and requires correction through councils and theological clarification.